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(49) 《汉语大词典》，页2108。(50) 《汉语大词典》，页4703。(51) 《汉语大词典》，页1137。(52) 《汉语大词典》，页4749。(53) 《汉语大词典》，页2567。(54) 《汉语大词典》，页4717。(55) 《汉语大词典》，页6263。(56) 《汉语大词典》，页3533。(57) 以下是“学校”与“学堂”用法的简单讨论。马西尼认为：“在日语影响下，此词〔学校〕完全取代了‘学堂’、‘书院’以及‘学塾’。”（马西尼书，页257）从“数据库”的统计来看，1900年之前，“学堂”的使用次数远远多于“学校”，1900年后两词的使用次数相差不大，在清末新政中，“学堂”还是清廷新学制中教育机构的正式名称，直到1912年民国确定以“学校”为教育机构的正式名称以后，“学校”的使用次数才超过“学堂”。马西尼还认为：“〔《万国公报》〕从1893年起，‘学校’用来指欧洲的学校，‘学堂’仍用来指中国的学校”（马西尼书，页258），此说不确。“学校”与“学堂”都曾经用来指称日本和欧洲模式的现代学校，也同时用来指中国传统的学校，在《万国公报》中也是如此：“福君又于一千八百二十年，在瑞士国卢撒尔拿部另立学堂。留巴鲁伯管理基勒好学堂事，偕郎格打勒前往卢撒尔拿。但该处多系奉天主教之人，疑福君欲离散其教友，引入路得会，相戒勿往。故学堂不能大兴。”参见秀耀春、汪振声：“养蒙正轨·福若伯训蒙法”（1899），载李天纲编校：《万国公报文选》，页632。再如：“学校之兴，莫隆于三代，亦莫备于三代。其后世远年湮，风俗愈趋而愈下，人心愈乖而愈离。举所谓党庠术序之遗规，几令人有爱莫能传之感。”参见李佳白：“创设学校议”（1895），载《万国公报文选》，页578。马西尼也认为：“梁启超用‘学校’来指日本和欧洲模式的现代学校，而‘学堂’、‘学舍’用来指中国传统的学校”（马西尼书，页258），此说不确。至少在1900年之前，梁启超在“学校”和“学堂”的使用上还没有出现马西尼所说的这种差别。如：“古者学校皆国家所立，教师皆朝廷所庸。故大戴七属，言学则任师。周官九两，言以贤得民。而学记一篇，乃专标诲人之术，以告天下之为人师者。”参见梁启超：“变法通议·论师范”（1896），载《饮冰室文集之一》，第一册，页35；又如：“西人学堂悉有专书，岁为一编，月为一卷，日为一课。小学有小学之课，中学有中学之课。专门之学，各有其专门之课。其为课也，举学堂之诸生无不同也，举国之学堂无不同也。”参见梁启超：“变法通议·论译书”，载《饮冰室文集之一》，第一册，页69。“学校”与“学堂”常常混用，但也有细微分别。“学校”更为古典，与科举关系密切，“古者科举，皆出学校，学校制废而科举始敝矣。……故科举合于学校，则人才盛。科举离于学校，则人才衰。有科举，无学校，则人才亡。”参见梁启超：“变法通议·论科举”，载《饮冰室文集之一》，第一册，页21、23。而“学堂”更为现代，与科举是对立关系。如：“现学堂科举，新旧并行，有特科，有常科，有府厅州县学，有大小中等高等学，有寓洋商籍小学，有士绅倡设算艺文字小学，有生员举贡进士，有学堂生员举人进士，又有特科出身译书出身，均应隶部另议。学校归入地方官考成，尤关吏课，至于祠祭所掌，亦宜增定。”参见蔡镇藩：“奏请审官定职以成新政折”（光绪二十四年七月，1898），载《戊戌变法》，第二册，页384。“学校”包含有道德培养的含义，而“学堂”侧重于西学，强调知识教育。如：“学校者，国民之制造所也，国风之渊源也，而国民职业之豫备校也。苟欲组织全体以军人乎？则当先自学校始。欲使将来国民有如何之起业心，如何之锻炼力，如何之军人气质精神，则当先知学校教育之方针奚若而后可。”参见百里：“军国民之教育”，《新民丛报》，第二十二号（1902年12月14日），页11。关于中国教育机构的兴废，曾有人这样论述：“三代育才兴能，悉由学校。自学校之法敝，而书院之事起。因书院之规隘，而学堂之议兴。然则今之学堂，盖即宋元郡直省书院之制。今之学堂总办，亦即国子祭酒省会山长之任。”参见何通判（熙年）：“上张香帅言武备学堂事宜书（附呈条陈八则）”，《时务报》，第二十七册（1897年5月22日），页9。(58) 《汉语大词典》，页2251。(59) 《汉语大词典》，页6332。(60) 《汉语大词典》，页7192。(61) 《汉语大词典》，页2903。(62) 《汉语大词典》，页4896。(63) 《汉语大词典》，页4896。(63a) 《汉语大词典》，页7418。(64) 《汉语大词典》，页6955。(65) 《汉语大词典》，页1136。(66) 《汉语大词典》，页1131。(67) 《汉语大词典》，页5279。附录三有关统计分析的讨论本书所有的统计图表，都用一种最简单的计量方法作出，这就是关键词在各年的使用次数。这自然会带来一个问题：由于“数据库”中各年文献的总字数不一样多，有时甚至相差数倍，那么，对关键词各年使用次数的统计和比较还有意义吗？显然，更为可靠的统计方法是对统计结果作归一化处理，即统计该关键词在每年万字（或千字、或十万字）中的使用次数，这样，各年的比较才更有说服力。鉴于此，我们必须讨论两个问题：第一，归一化后的统计是否会较大地影响、甚或推翻本书的主要分析和结论？第二，为什么本书中没有采用经过归一化处理的数据做统计图表？先谈第一个问题。在以下的分析和举例中，将会表明用关键词在各年文献使用的总次数作出的和用归一化作出的统计图表，虽然是不一样的，但由于我们是研究若干重要现代政治观念的起源和演变的，这一差别不会影响本书的分析和结论。为了说明这一点，我们有必要分析一下本书使用统计图表的四种情况：第一种，研究新观念传入（出现）的时间。由于绝大多数新观念是采用中文原有词汇来指涉的，我们是考察代表某一新观念的关键词，最早是在什么年代、在哪一个例句中开始使用的；在引进新义后，该关键词在使用中又有哪几种意义类型？这些意义类型按年代的分布出现何种消长？第二种，分析某一关键词的使用次数在何时超过另一个关键词，由此研究观念的演变。这一类在我们的分析中使用相当多，如“真理”取代“公理”、“社会”取代“群”、“民主”取代“共和”等。第三种，比较两个（或多个）不同关键词在某一时段中使用次数变化的类似性，也就是分析它们之间的相关性，并讨论相应观念的相关性。第四种，从统计图表中找出某一关键词使用次数出现高峰的年份，分析讨论其原因，并考察它和重大历史事件的关系。显而易见，每年文献的总字数不同不会影响前三种情况。第一种情况是寻找新观念最早出现的文献和例句，它与统计方法无关。第二、三种情况考察的是不同统计曲线的相互关系，归一化的处理也不会改变它们之间的相互关系。如某一年后，“社会”的使用次数超过“群”，将其换成万字中这些关键词的使用次数，并不会改变上述结论。只有第四种情况，也就是单一曲线的高峰分布方会受归一化的影响。在受到归一化影响的第四种情况中，我们在引用图表进行分析时，重点是考察与关键词使用次数出现峰值的那些年代发生了什么重大事件（这些重大事件主要包括：洋务运动、甲午战争、戊戌变法、庚子事变、日俄战争、清末新政及预备立宪、辛亥革命和新文化运动），以及这些事件的发生对观念的影响。不论是赞成或反对这种观念，只要它们曾受关注并被广泛讨论，都可以在相应关键词的使用次数上反映出来。事实上，在第四种情况中，我们更多的是回到某一历史事件发生前后具体思想论争的分析中，因此，是否采用归一化处理并没有影响本书的分析和结论。也正因为如此，我们在讨论数据库方法在观念史研究的应用时，总是特别强调它只是辅助工具，实质性的结论仍是研究者凭史料分析得出的。以下，我们可以用一个具体的例子，来比较未使用或使用归一化处理的统计图表的差异。如果用p表示各年每万字中某一关键词的使用次数，对于每一个关键词，我们可以作出p按年度分布的归一化曲线。为此，我们作出“数据库”各年文献字数统计附录三表（见后）。我们选取本书的图2.1为案例，该图是处理“国民”和“个人”两条曲线的，然后我们按附录三表提供的“数据库”各年文献总字数做归一统计，作出“国民”和“个人”p值的分布图（图14.1）。图2.1　“国民”、“个人”在中国政治文化中的涌现（1898～1915）对比图2.1和附录三图，很明显，无论使用哪种统计方法，1903年和1906年都是这两个关键词的使用高峰，它们与个人是权利主体的观念被广泛接受有关。这说明从图2.1得到的分析仍然有效。但根据图2.1，我们无法理解为何1907年后“国民”和“个人”这两个词的使用次数大为减少了，而经过归一化处理的附录三图，1912年亦是两个关键词的高峰。附录三图提示我们，这个减少可能是因为以后年代的文献总字数少了。对照附录三表，1912年的文献总字数确实比前后两年都少得多。现在，我们可以回到前面提到的第二个问题，这就是为何没有用p分布图代替本书中的各年使用次数分布图？根据以上分析，我们可以看到，针对我们的研究目标，两种统计方法差别并不大，不会影响内文的分析和结论。进一步说，在第一种情况，是寻找新观念的使用在某一篇文献中第一次出现的例句，如1864年《万国公法》用“民主”译democracy和republic，这时用p即万字中使用次数是没有意义的。第二种和第三种情况，是研究取代或两个以上关键词的相互关系，这时p分布图和本书所用的方法是等价的。只有在讨论某一特定关键词的传播和普及时，用p分布图才是更合适的，如在上面对比图2.1和附录三图时，归一化方法更为合理。虽然是这样，但考虑到关键词的年使用次数的统计可以适用于我们所需的前三种情况，为了所有统计图表的一致性，我们在编定本书时，仍然用简单的年使用次数来做统计图表。附录三图　“国民”、“个人”各年万字中的使用次数（1898～1915）“数据库”的建库工程中，如何针对研究所需来选择入库文献，是一个更为基本的问题。这一点在方法论长文中我们已作出说明。我们总是先选择学界已公认的1830至1930年间，那些与政治社会思想有关的报刊、档案、文集中最有代表性的文献，然后再逐步扩充。在扩充的过程中，虽然我们也尽量注意各年的总字数问题，但文献的性质仍是第一考虑因素。到目前为止，虽然“数据库”中已有一亿两千万字，但各年文献的总字数相差仍很大，许多重要文献仍未收录。这反映出数据库这一新方法在应用于研究的过程中，随着库的不断完善、扩充，研究者也应不断对前期工作作出修订和改进。事实上，归一化也是一种简单的统计方法。如果将来“数据库”所收的文献足够多，各年总字数也大致相近时，可以应用的统计方法将有很多，也可能会得出凭直观难以想象出的结果。这一有趣的探讨，只能留给更年轻的研究者去做了。我们相信，随着“数据库”所收的文献不断增加、功能的不断完善，它一定会令研究者得益更多。附录三表　“中国近现代思想史专业数据库”（1830～1930）各年文献字数附录四导论及各篇文章的英文摘要（English Abstract）IntroductionWe will give a brief account of our studies of the origins and transformation of ten basic concepts of "gonghe"（republicanism），"minzhu"（democracy），"quanli"（rights），"geren"（individual），"shehui"（society），"gongli"（axiom），"zhenli"（truth），"jingji"（economy），"geming"（revolution），"kexue"（science）in modern Chinese history with the use of our "Database for the Study of Modern Chinese Thought"（1830-1930）that consists of 120 million words．By drawing on these studies，we try to bring to attention the significance of database method and keyword analysis in the studies of the links between terminologies and significant historical events．Our findings yielded from this new approach challenge certain long-held beliefs．We discover that the modern transformation of Chinese thought can be periodized into three stages．The first stage was from 1840 to 1895 which was characterized by the selective absorption of modern Western thought by traditional Chinese thought．During the second stage，i．e．from 1895 to 1915，as the Western world was undergoing a period of nation-state establishment，the retreat of Confucianism from public realm could only be found in the private realm of the clan，whereas the learning of Western thought took place in the public sphere，especially after 1900．The third stage was from 1915 to 1924 while the attempt to gain knowledge from the West suffered failures and setbacks that entailed a reconstruction of modern concepts like democracy，rights，and society from the Western world．Such a reconstruction gave birth to contemporary Chinese thought.1．"Tianli"，"Gongli"，and "Zhenli": Chinese Culture's Demonstration of and Criteria for Legitimacy from the Perspective of Intellectual HistoryThis essay aims at shedding a new light on the unique reasoning model in justification in Chinese culture and its transformation under the impact of the West．We try to achieve this goal by conducting meaning analysis of the concepts like "li"（reason），"tianli"（principle of nature），"gongli"（axiom），"zhenli"（truth）and frequency count of their appearance in Confucian classics and leading modern literature．The original meaning of the Chinese word "li" was "texture" or "orderliness"，but it adopted the meaning of "arrangement" and "establishment" of moral order gradually．"Li" finally became a criterion for rationality or legitimacy in the process of justification or legitimization of certain political systems，institutions，behaviours，or social actions．This was a result of the fact that morals and ethics were regarded as the ultimate concern and that common-sense rationality played an important role in Chinese culture.After Neo-Confucianism was fully developed in Song and Ming dynasties，"li" became a basis for the interpretation of cosmic order and a criterion for legitimacy of political systems，norms，and all social actions．From this development，we observe that the reasoning model in legitimization and justification in Chinese culture is quite different from that of rationalization in the West．When China was under the impact of the West and had to embark on her modernization，which can be viewed as taking up the Western way of rationalization（namely，the expansion of instrumental rationality），the interaction between traditional Chinese argumentational structure of legitimization and Western rationalization was inevitable．The replacement of "tianli" by "gongli" in the late nineteenth century was a result of the ingression of the concept of modern Western legitimization into Chinese culture．Our analysis of the various meanings of the concept "gongli" from 1895 to 1915 reveals that the process of the ingression of Western rationalization into China was fluctuant．The replacement of "gongli" by "zhenli" after 1915 was an indicator of the emergence of modern Chinese argum entational structure of legitimization．In this essay，the concepts "zhenli"，"gongli"，"gongli"（principle），and "lixing"（rationality）that appear in five of the most representative journals are analyzed．It is found that the argum entational structure using "zhenli" as a criterion for legitimacy and the reasoning model in justification employed by traditional Chinese common-sense rationality share certain characteristics．This is one of the causes leading to Chinese intellectuals-acceptance of Marxism-Leninism and is a foundation for legitimization in Chinese modernization movement in the twentieth century．This essay shows that in the process of Chinese modernization，the ingression of modern Western argum entational structure for legitimacy of institution into China was far more difficult than that of scientific knowledge or of Western institution per se．It is because such development was subject to the interaction between traditional Chinese argum entational structure of legitimization and Western rationalization; and the formation of modern Chinese culture was also shaped by this interaction.2．On Confucian Public Sphere: A Study of the Modern Transformation of Chinese Society from the Perspective of Intellectual HistoryThis essay aims at investigating the origins of the modern Chinese concept of "gong"（public）by a quantitative study，in which the frequency of occurrence and meanings of terms like "gongli"（axiom），"guomin"（nationals），"shehui"（society）in important modern Chinese texts were quantitatively analyzed．This essay also seeks to answer the following question: did a public sphere similar to the West exist in China? We found that a special kind of public sphere constituted by representatives of the family（gentries）instead of individuals did exist in China's modern transition．We see it as a product of Confucian political culture in response to the impact of the West and call it "Confucian public sphere"．We believe that it was a particular type of public sphere which was different to the Haberm asian model．A thorough study is of great importance to our understanding of the modernization of Asian societies.3．Origins and Evolution of the Concept of Rights in Modern ChinaThe concept of rights is the kernel and basis of modern liberalism and jurisprudence．It implies the legitimacy of the autonomy of the individual．This essay aims at exploring the process of the acceptance and the usage of the above concept in the formation of modern Chinese culture．We know that in Chinese the word "quanli"（rights）means both power and interest．And it is no coincidence that Late-Qing Chinese intellectuals' awareness of the legitimacy of the autonomy of the nation（the community）actually came from their efforts to strengthen the nation's power and protect its interests．This is why "quanli" was used to translate "rights"．From 1900 to 1915，the scope of the concept of autonomy was being so expanded that it now covered both the concept of the nation and that of the individual．During the period，the meanings of "quanli" were closer to the meanings of "rights" in the West than it had been before．In Chinese culture，the concept of legitimacy is closely connected with morals while political culture is inseparable from moral judgment．Therefore，it is hard for the Chinese to accept any notion that legitimacy is not an equivalent to morality．New Culture Movement（1915-1924）was the vital period that shaped the landscape of modern Chinese political culture．We choose La Jeunesse as the object of our case study in which the usage of the concept "quanli" was analyzed and categorized to provide necessary statistics．Then，a comparison was made of the usage of "quanli" in La Jeunesse with its usage in literature published in late Qing and the 1911 Revolution．The comparison shows that the concept "quanli" was getting more and more moralized and even became a new standard of morals．It was this evolution of meanings that caused some Chinese intellectuals as represented by the writers of La Jeunesse to accept Marxism-Leninism and reject liberalism.The research methods we employed take the form of an analysis of both the meanings of the keyword "quanli" and its statistics．And we place the result of this analysis within the context of intellectual history for studying the formation of modern Chinese political culture．In the study，we need to clarify the meanings of certain important concepts in different cultural value systems and explore their translations across cultures．The influence of significant historical events in modern Chinese history on the evolution of the meanings of these concepts is also a factor to be taken into account in the course of performing this study.4．The Origins，Transformation，and Form of the Chinese Concept of IndividualityWith the help of the database，this essay examines the formation and transformation of the Chinese concept of individuality through a keyword analysis of the terms "geren"（individual），"quanli"（rights），and "guomin"（nationals）．We found that the Chinese's acceptance of the Western concept of individuality was based on the individualization of national sovereignty and coincided with individual's becoming the subject of rights．It was the product of the spread of Social Darwinism and the emergence of dualism of Chinese and Western learning from 1900 to 1915．During the New Culture Movement，this dualism of Chinese and Western learning was criticized and Social Darwinism was no longer seen as a universal principle．Therefore，the new generation of intellectuals began to accept the concept of individuality based on common sense，which was different to its Western counterpart．Today，this particular concept of individuality and individualism still dominate the mind of the Chinese.5．From "Qun" to "Shehui" and "Shehuizhuyi": Transformation of Public Sphere in Modern China from the Perspective of Intellectual HistoryThis essay aims at investigating the formation and disappearance of public sphere by studying the evolution in the meaning of the terms "qun"（community），"shehui"（society），and "shehuizhuyi"（socialism）in modern Chinese history．In traditional Chinese society，public sphere failed to come into existence though village autonomy did exist below the county level where the gentry had dominance．In the late nineteenth century，under the impact of the West，"qun" emerged out of various traditional political terms and became a guiding principle of the society．This phenomenon was closely related to the fact that some intellectuals adopted "Jinwen Jingxue"（the Modern Text School of Confucian classics）as a guideline for the 1898 Reform Movement．As the notion of reform was superseded by that of revolution，"shehui" took the place of "qun" and became the equivalent of the Western term "society"．This marked the debut of public sphere in modern Chinese history，and the subsequent rise of socialism could be seen as the subordination of private realm to public realm．This heralded the expansion of state power and the intensification of bureaucratization in Chinese society in the early twentieth century．In this essay，we not only make use of the analytical method（s）of intellectual history but also draw on the study of linguistics．By employing quantitative analysis as our research method，we hope that this study can throw a new light on the formation of modern Chinese political concepts.6．From "Tianxia"，"Wanguo" to "Shijie": With a Discussion on the Origins of Chinese NationalismThe exact time of the disintegration of the traditional Chinese concept of "tianxia"（all under heaven）and the formation of late-Qing nationalism has long been an unsolved question in historical studies．With the database，we conducted frequency count and meaning analysis of certain terms like "tianxia" ，"guojia"（state），"minzu"（nation），"wanguo"（ten thousand countries），"shijie"（world）and "shiji"（century）from 1860 to 1915 and have two findings．First，from 1860 to 1895，most Qing scholar-officials' understanding of the world order was dominated by their China-centered "wanguo guan"（the concept of ten thousand countries），which was a variation of the earlier "tianxia guan"（the concept of all under heaven）．This finding can help us better understand the causes of the 1894-1895 Sino-Japanese War．Second，late-Qing nationalism took shape in 1901．Its emergence was a product of the decentralization of "wanguo guan" after the 1894-1895 Sino-Japanese War．The background to this transformation was cosmopolitanism，in which "tianxia" was replaced by "shijie"．Chinese nationalism was seen as a way to achieve cosmopolitanism from its very beginning．This finding can help us better understand the later forms of Chinese nationalism.7．From "Gonghe" to "Minzhu": China's Selective Absorption and Reconstruction of Modern Western Political ConceptsThis essay discusses the introduction of the Western concept of democracy to China from the late nineteenth century to the first two decades of the twentieth century and the formation of the Chinese concept of democracy．It suggests that the modern Chinese concept of democracy underwent two formational phases．At the beginning，the traditional elite tended to interpret Western democracy in terms of republicanism．During the New Culture Movement，the new generation of intellectuals began a selective reconstruction of the notion of democracy，which resulted in the modern Chinese view of democracy characterized by popular participation and elections．By doing frequency count and meaning analysis of the terms "gonghe"（republicanism）and "minzhu"（democracy），this essay examines the roots of the replacement of the concept of republicanism by democracy from the perspective of intellectual history.8．From "Fuqiang" to "Jingshi" and "Jingji": The Transformation of the Principle of Social Organization from the Perspective of Intellectual HistoryThis essay aims at examining the internal causes of the May-Fourth intellectuals' acceptance of Marxism-Leninism by analyzing the shift of the lexical meanings of the term "jingji"（economy）in modern China．The earliest meaning of the Chinese term "jingji" was "to rule the world and govern the people" or the ability of governance．It reflects a unique economic perspective that was embraced by Confucianism．In this perspective，society is no more than but a conglomeration of people whose interrelationship is organized by ethical norms．Under such principles for social organization，the rearrangement of society's moral order is regarded as the only way to improve people's living standards．The adoption of the term "jingji" as the translation of "economy"（it can also be viewed as the borrowing of the Japanese term "keizai" ）in modern China has its root in the Confucian blueprint for social organization in which economic order is considered to be an extension of the moral order.At the early stage of the New Culture Movement（1915-1919），under the influence of French Enlightenment，Chinese intellectuals accepted the Western liberal blueprint for social organization: society is formed by independent individuals whose interrelationship is governed by contracts．In the perspective of such a principle for social organization，economic order has no connection with moral order．It was also in this period that the term "jingji" became detached from morals and since then began to pick up the meaning with which we are familiar today．However，at the same period，China was faced with the failure of the introduction of the Western system of representative government．In addition，common people faced impoverishment，which was created by the first modernization movement that was launched simultaneously with the political reform in late Qing．These events acted as the catalysts of many intellectuals' abandonment of the liberal principle for social organization，which views the society as a group of individuals formed by the new morals and norms．This is the internal cause of the May-Fourth intellectuals' acceptance of Marxism-Leninism in the perspective of intellectual history.Historical materialism and the surplus value theory are main components of Marxism．And，the surplus value theory is a derivative of the criticism of the Western liberal principle of social organization and explanation of the impoverishment of labors．Leninism carries the idea that society be formed by proletarian elites．This went well with the May-Fourth intellectuals' skepticism towards the Western liberal principle of social structure．In this essay，we try to trace the process of the transformation of Chinese intellectuals' economic perspective and May-Fourth intellectuals' acceptance of Marxism-Leninism through a quantitative analysis of the meanings of the term "jingji" and other relevant terms run in modern Chinese newspapers and journals，especially the eleven volumes of La Jeunesse．We found that the rise of Marxist economic determinism was closely related to Chinese intellectuals' return to the idea that society be formed by ethical norms．The introduction of economic determinism appeared in three stages．The first stage was represented by the publication of the first five volumes of La Jeunesse（1915-1919），in which the term "jingji" became detached from morals and the term "shehui"（society）made its debut．It was also in this stage that the liberal principle for social structure was under the impact of the failure of introducing republicanism into China．The second stage was marked by the publication of volume 6-8 of La Jeunesse（1919-1921）．This stage saw modern social structure greeted with considerable skepticism and the assimilation of historical materialism was accepted．Also，in this stage，intellectuals became aware of the difficulties of common people in making their livings and the impoverishment of labors and peasants．The last three volumes of La Jeunesse，namely，volume 9，quarterly，and irregular issues（1921-1926）were symbols of the third stage，in which the surplus value theory and Leninism prevailed．In this essay，by juxtaposing the process of May-Fourth intellectuals' acceptance of economic determinism and the rise of Marxist economic determinism in the West，we try to explore the mechanism they shared and review the role that deep structure of traditional Chinese culture played in the acceptance of Marxism-Leninism.9．From "Gewuzhizhi" to "Kexue" and "Shengchanli": A Study of Knowledge Systems and Cultural Relationships from the Perspective of Intellectual HistoryThis essay examines the transformation of the function and structure of the knowledge system of Chinese culture by performing frequency count and meaning analysis of terms such as "gezhi"（gaining knowledge by studying of the principle of matters），"kexue"（science），"changshi"（common sense）and "jishu"（technology）．With the database，we investigate the formation and structure of scientism in modern Chinese political culture．We also examine the differences between Chinese scientism and its Western counterpart.First，we determined that the term "gezhi" was used to refer to "science" since the late Ming dynasty because of the emphasis on the integration of knowledge and morals by the Cheng-Zhu School of Neo-Confucianism and the formation of the modern Chinese tradition．It was a manifestation of the common-sense rationality of Chinese culture．Second，the term "kexue" was originally used as the short form for "keju"（imperial civil service examination system）and "xuexiao"（school）in Chinese．The replacement of "gezhi" by "kexue" occurred between 1902 and 1905—the same period that the abolition of the imperial civil service examination system took place．We analyzed the reasons why these two events coincided from the perspective of intellectual history，finding that the Qing government had adopted a dualistic ideology that maintained a demarcation between China and the West．It used this ideology as the foundation of its abolition of the imperial civil service examination system and the launching of constitutional reform．This dualism resulted in the divorce of science from morals．Chinese intellectuals thus began to use the amoral "kexue" to denote "science"．By doing frequency count and meaning analysis of "kexue"，"changshi" and other related terms，we found that as an important concept of modern Chinese culture that took shape during the New Culture Movement，"kexue" has been given two different meanings．First，as modern common sense，it was seen as the revival of a justification structure similar to that of the Cheng-Zhu School of Neo-Confucianism．This justification structure was used to determine the moral values from a knowledge system based on common-sense rationality．"Kexue" was used to attack superstition and served as the basis of a new ideology．Second，it was often used to refer to both science and technology and covered the contents of the Confucian concept of "jingshi zhiyong"（practical application of knowledge to govern the country）．We found that although the replacem ent of "gezhi" by " kexue" symbolizes the modern transformation of the knowledge system of Chinese culture（and its application）under the impact of the West，the relationship between the knowledge system and the new ideology（modern value system）remained isomorphic during the New Culture Movement．This proves that the positioning of the knowledge system and new ideologies（modern value systems）may vary according to the values of different civilizations while this positioning does not change with the modern transformation of knowledge systems and traditional cultures．10．The Formation and Transformation of the Concept of Revolution in ChinaThis essay presents a quantitative study aimed at investigating the formation and transformation of the concept of revolution．" Geming"（revolution）is an ancient Chinese term for the predestined cycles governed by "tiandao"（the way of heaven）．During the Han dynasty，it was used to express dynastic changes．Before the 1898 Reform Movement，the Chinese concept of revolution was usually used in a negative sense．The abortive 1898 Reform Movement was seen as the failure of the Qing governm ent's efforts to reform itself and the legitimacy of its rule was thus undermined．The concept of revolution began to gain momentum after the 1900 Boxer Uprising．The traditional Chinese concept of dynastic changes merged with the Western concept of revolution．This conceptual hybrid was seen as a justification for the overthrow of the Qing dynasty and the establishment of a new government．As the French Revolution and the Russian October Revolution were made known to the Chinese，the Western idea of revolution was incorporated into the traditional Chinese concept of revolution and the modern Chinese concept of revolution emerged．In addition to senses like radical change，progression，this Chinese concept of revolution was associated with the traditional notion of "tiandao"，which distinguished it from its Western counterpart．In the new "tiandao "，progression was seen as a principle of the cosmos and egalitarianism in place of Confucianism became the morality of the new age．The use of revolutionism as the mainstay for China's social integration was based on two historical backgrounds．First，the Chinese revolutionism aimed at creating a modern society different to Western models after China's failure to learn Western democracy and republicanism．Second，the Chinese concept of revolution contained certain traditional senses．Revolutions in twentieth-century China inherently bore the nature of dynastic changes（for instance，establishment of a new government by the peasant revolution）．In the wake of the upheaval of the Cultural Revolution，Chinese intellectuals came to realize the necessity of bidding farewell to the revolution．As the Chinese bid farewell to the revolution，the introduction of modern Western economic and political systems was once again placed in the forefront，but on the other hand，it also led to the disintegration of the new morality that took shape during China's modernization because such amorality was contained in the modern Chinese concept of revolution．In the late twentieth century，the fast growth of Chinese economy was accompanied by a general moral crisis．11．Why Did the May-Fourth La Jeunesse Intellectuals Abandon "Liberalism": A Study of the Interaction between Socio-political Events and the Transformation of IdeasHow did socio-political events bring about changes in general concepts has been a blind spot and difficult area in the studies of the history of ideas？This essay illustrates how people's evaluations of certain socio-political events were influenced by general concepts．We found that database and quantitative methods are of great value in determining people's impression and opinion of an event．And we can also investigate the relationship between important socio-political events and general concepts by examining people's evaluations of events．In other words，we can study the interaction between socio-political events and general concepts by using the database approach．In order to have a better grasp of this interaction，in this essay we introduce a new concept that we call "the event in the panoram a of the history of ideas"．By using the case of the May-Fourth intellectuals' abandoning of liberalism，we demonstrate the value and potential of the database approach in the studies of the interaction of socio-political events and general concepts．12．"Keju" and "Kexue": A Case Study of the Connection between Social Events and the Transformation of IdeasBy using the quantitative method of keyword analysis，this essay found that the replacement of the term "gezhi"（gaining knowledge by studying of the principle of matters）by "kexue"（science）coincided with the abolition of "keju"（the imperial civil service exam ination system）in late-Qing China．Thus，we discovered how the replacement of the term "gezhi" by "kexue" was facilitated by the abolition of the imperial civil service examination system．During the early twentieth century，"kexue" was used as a short form for "fenke xuetang"（schools with different academic disciplines）．When these modern schools and new educational system were about to take over traditional schools and old educational system，the abolition of "keju" was inevitable and "kexue" quickly became the translation for "science"．The case study presented in this essay shows that the creation of full-text databases and the adoption of the database approach are of great importance to the studies of the interaction between social events and general concepts.13．On the Authenticity of History: Database Methods and Paradigm Shift in Historical StudiesThis essay argues that the objects of historical studies should not be seen as an objective being independent of the subject．The principle of objectivity in historical studies should be replaced by the principle of judging empirical reality．This principle is based on the following assumption: the essential prerequisite of understanding the truth of history is to restore the concepts that governed the way of thinking of the recorders and participants of a particular historical incident．In order to grasp the reality of history，in this essay we explain "the event in the panorama of the history of ideas" and the necessary and sufficient conditions for determining the realities of the events in the panorama of the history of ideas．Only by ascertaining the mechanism of the formation and transformation of concepts can we see the real picture of the history of ideas and achieve a scientific causality interpretation of history.On one hand，history unfolds as concepts are materialized into actions．On the other hand，the formation and reformation of concepts are influenced by social events．Thus，there is an interaction between concepts and social events and it constitutes the real historical memory．Our pursuit of the objectivity of the historical memory and the principle of value neutrality of history memory is not intended to exclude the concepts behind historical events，instead it is aimed at finding out the underlying values of the historical events，and producing a broader perspective by investigating the interaction between concepts and events，thereby transcending the view points of individual participants.In this essay we will discuss the significance of the database method in determining the actual concepts behind major historical events．We believe that a new paradigm is in formation for the studies of the modern transition of Chinese society．In this paradigm the database method is adopted to study the events in the panorama of the history of ideas．This essay also discusses two existing oversim plifications in the studies of historical events: 1．treating them as social facts with classic objectivity; 2．seeing them as the subjective reality．These two over-simplifications are respectively seen in the Annales School and postmodern history．Therefore，the application of our new database-aided research method may overcome the limitations of the Annales School and postmodern history．By using this new research method to go beyond the principles of causality and statistical relationship emphasized in the studies of natural sciences and social sciences，we may discover some new patterns in the cause of history.参考书目一、中文部分专著《大清德宗景（光绪）皇帝实录》。台北：新文丰出版公司，1978。《中国大百科全书》编辑委员会编：《中国大百科全书·社会学》。北京：中国大百科全书出版社，1991。王利器校注：《盐铁论校注》。北京：中华书局，1992。王家骅：《儒家思想与日本文化》。杭州：浙江人民出版社，1990。王尔敏：《上海格致书院志略》。香港：中文大学出版社，1980。王德昭：《清代科举制度研究》。香港：中文大学出版社，1982。包默（Franklin L．Baumer）著，李日章译：《西方近代思想史》。台北：联经出版事业公司，1988。布宁（Nicholas 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