after examining theories,正义的一些当代的理论modern theories, of justice这些理论 试图把that try to detach正义和权利considerations of justice and rights从 道德应得和美德的问题 中分离出去。from questions of moral desert and virtue.亚里士多德 不同意 康德和罗尔斯。Aristotle disagrees with Kant and Rawls.亚里士多德主张，公正是关于 让人们得到应得之物 的问题。Aristotle argues that justice is a matter of giving people what they deserve.而亚里士多德的正义理论 其中心观点就是And the central idea of Aristotle's theory of justice在思考 正义和权利 的时候，is that in reasoning about justice and rights we have,就不可避免地要思考 这些行为的unavoidably, to reason about the purpose,or the end, or the telos,目的、目标、或泰罗斯（希腊语，指目标）of social practices in institutions.确实，正义要求我们 对相同的人，给予相同的东西。Yes, justice requires giving equal things to equal persons,但一谈到正义，问题很快来了：but the question immediately arises,in any debate about justice,在什么方面 相同?equal in what respect?亚里士多德说，要回答那个问题And Aristotle says we need to fill in the answer to that question就得看 它的目标by looking to the characteristic end,或其 本性，or the essential nature,或 我们分配之物 其自身的目的。or the purpose, of the thing we're distributing.于是，我们讨论了 亚里士多德 关于长笛的例子。And so we discussed Aristotle's example of flutes;谁该得到 最好的长笛？who should get the best flutes.亚里士多德的回答是 最好的长笛手。And Aristotle's answer was the best flute-players.最好的长笛手 应获得最好的长笛，The best flute-player should get the best flute因为这样能 彰显because that's the way of honoring卓越的长笛演奏the excellence of flute playing.这也是对 伟大长笛手 的奖赏。It's a way of rewarding the virtue of the great flute-player.有趣的是....What's interesting though,(这就是我们今天要探究的)and this is what we are going to explore today,有趣的是，不用目的论 来进行思考，并不那么容易，is that it's not quite so easy to dispense with teleological reasoning尤其当我们思考 社会制度when we're thinking about social institutions和 政治实践活动时。and political practices.当我们思考 伦理、正义和道德时，In general it's hard to do without teleology一般来说，你很难不用到 目的论。when we're thinking about ethics,justice, and moral argument.至少亚里士多德 是这么认为的。At least that is Aristotle's claim.而我想通过两个例子And I would like to bring out the force in Aristotle's claim来解释 亚里士多德的这一观点by considering two examples.一个例子是，亚里士多德 花了相当的时间去讨论One is an example that Aristotle spends quite a bit of time discussing;政治生活的事例。the case of politics.例如，应该怎样分配 国家官职、荣誉称号How should political offices and honors,和政府权力？how should political rule be distributed?第二个例子是，当代关于高尔夫球的争论。The second example is a contemporary debate about golf即 职业高尔夫球协会 是否应该and whether the Professional Golfers Association允许 Casey Martinshould be required to allow Casey Martin,这位 有残疾的 高尔夫球手a golfer with a disability,允许他 驾驶 高尔夫球车。to ride in a golf cart.这两个事例都 体现了Both cases bring out亚里士多德 目的论的思考方式a further feature一个更深入的特点。of Aristotle's teleological way of thinking about justice.这个特点会出现在，当我们考虑 目标 或目的时，And that is that when we attend to the telos, or the purpose,有时会出现分歧，并争论sometimes we disagree and argue about what the purpose某个社会活动 真正存在的目的 是什么。of a social practice really consists in.当我们存在 分歧时And when we have those disagreements那些分歧中 的关键部分part of what's at stake in those disagreements不仅仅是 谁将得到什么 的问题is not just who will get what,不仅仅是一个分配问题，not just a distributive question,更是一个关于 彰显荣耀 的问题。but also an honorific question.具有怎样 品质和才华 的人，What qualities,what excellences,才配得到 那份荣誉？of persons will be honored?讨论 目的和目标Debates about purpose and telos常常同时 要讨论关于 荣誉的问题。are often, simultaneously, debates about honor.现在，让我们来看这些例子Now, let's see how that works亚里士多德 叙述政治生活的事例，【】in the case of Aristotle's account of politics.这些天，当我们讨论 分配公正时When we discuss distributive justice these days我们主要关注 收入、财富、机会的分配。we're mainly concerned with the distribution of income and wealth and opportunity.亚里士多德 对分配正义的关注Aristotle took distributive justice主要 不集中在 收入和财富上，to be mainly not about income and wealth而是在 官职和荣誉称号上。but about offices and honors.谁才是 有权利去统治的人？Who should have the right to rule?谁应该是 一个公民？Who should be a citizen?政治权力 应该怎样分配？How should political authority be distributed?这些都是 他关于的问题。Those were his questions.那么，他是怎样回答 这些问题的呢？How did he go about answering those questions?跟他对正义的 目的论解释一样Well, in line with his teleological account of justice,亚里士多德主张，为了知道 政治权力该如何分配，Aristotle argues that to know how political authority should be distributed我们首先要问 政治生活的目的、要点、we have, first, to inquire into the purpose, the point,泰罗斯（目的） 是什么the telos, of politics.政治生活 是关于什么的？So, what is politics about?它怎样帮助我们决定，该由谁来统治？And, how does this help us decide who should rule?亚里士多德 的回答是这样的，Well, for Aristotle the answer to that question is,政治生活 在于politics is about塑造品格，forming character,塑造好的品格，forming good character.在于培养公民的美德，It's about cultivating the virtue of citizens.在于美好的生活，It's about the good life.那才是国家的 最终目的、 政治共同体的 最终目的，The end of the State,the end of the political community,在《政治学》第三卷，他告诉我们，he tells us in Book Three of the Politics,政治生活不仅仅是生活，也不只是经济交易，is not mere life, it's not economic exchange only,不仅仅是 治安，it's not security only,而是实现美好生活。it's realizing the good life.这就是 亚里士多德所认为的，政治生活的目的。That's what politics is for according to Aristotle.现在，你可能会担心，你会说：Now, you might worry about this. You might say,“嗯，也许这让我们看到，为什么那些 关于正义和政治"Well, maybe this shows us why those modern theorists of justice,的现代理论and of politics,是正确的。”are right".还记得吗，对于康德和罗尔斯 来说Because remember,for Kant and for Rawls,政治的要点 不是塑造公民的道德品质。the point of politics is not to shape the moral character of citizens.它不是 要让我们变好。It's not to make us good.而是要 尊重我们 自由地选择 自己觉得好的东西、It's to respect our freedom to choose our goods,选择我们自己的价值 和最终目标，our values,our ends,并拥有和他人一样 的自由。consistent with a similar liberty for others.亚里士多德 不同意这些说法。Aristotle disagrees.“真正的城邦，"Any polis which is truly so called,那不仅仅是一个名字and is not merely one in name,她一定是献身于，提高美德的目标 之中。must devote itself to the end of encouraging goodness.否则，政治的联合 只沦为 一种同盟而已。Otherwise political association sinks into a mere alliance.法律 变成了一种协议，Law becomes a mere covenant,法律 变成了 个人权利的保证人a guarantor of man's rights against one another,而没有成为...它应该要成为...instead of being - as it should be -政治应该要 让城邦里的成员们 变得善良而公正。”a way of life such as will make the members of a polis good and just."这就是 亚里士多德的观点。That's Aristotle's view.一个城邦不只是，人们共同居住的 一个地方"A polis is not an association for residents on a common site,不只是 为了阻止 相互间的不正义行为。or for the sake of preventing mutual injustice不只是 为了方便人们交易。” 亚里士多德写道。and easing exchange." Aristotle writes.“城邦目的和目标 是为了美好的生活，"The end and purpose of a polis is the good life,而国家的建立，就是为了实现 这一目标。and the institutions of social life are means to that end."如果 这就是城邦和政治生活 的目的，Now, if that's the purpose of politics, of the polis,亚里士多德说，我们就能 以此得到then, Aristotle says,we can derive from that分配正义的原则；the principles of distributive justice;例如，谁该拥有 最大决定权的原则，the principles that tell us who should have the greatest say,谁该拥有 最大程度政治权力的原则。who should have the greatest measure of political authority.而他对此的回答 是什么呢？And what's his answer to that question?那些最能Well, those who contribute the most建立这样一种机构的，也就是，to an association of this character,能帮助人们 实现美好生活 的人，namely an association that aims at the good,就应该 在政治统治中获得最大份额，在城邦中享有荣誉称号。should have a greater share in political rule and in the honors of the polis.其理由是，And the reasoning is,在这个位置上，他们就最能实现they are in a position to contribute most政治共同体的 本质目的to what political community is essentially about.所以，你能看到 亚里士多德 是怎样Well, so you can see the link that he draws把公民和政治权力 的分配正义between the principle of distribution for citizenship and political authority和政治生活的目的 联系起来。and the purpose of politics.你很快会问，“但为什么？”"But why," you'll quickly ask,“为什么他会声称"Why does he claim政治生活，参与政治生活that political life, participation in politics,对于 过上美好生活is somehow essential