认为自由是自主的freedom as autonomy,他对道德的定义也很苛刻he also has a demanding conception of morality.行动自由，并不是选择最好的手段，来达到特定的目的To act freely is not to choose the best means to a given end;而是为了选择目的本身it's to choose the end itself for its own sake.这正是人类可以做到，And that's something that human beings can do而台球却无法做到的and that billiard balls can't.当我们出于偏好或享乐的行为In so far as we act on inclination or pursue pleasure,我们成了实现目的手段，而这个目的是外加给我们的we act as means to the realization of ends given outside us.我们成了工具，而不是实现目的的主人We are instruments rather than authors of the purposes we pursue,这就是我们的意志受“他律”支配that's the heteronymous determination of the will.另一方面，当我们根据我们给自己制定的规律On the other hand, in so far as we act autonomously,自主地行为时according to a law we give ourselves,我们的行为本身就是目的（而不是手段）we do something for its own sake as an end in itself.当我们自主行动时，我们好像是工具When we act autonomously, we seems to be instruments实现外加给我们目的的工具to purposes given outside us,但我们可以反过来，将我们自己we become, or we can come to think of ourselves看作是目的as ends in ourselves.康德告诉我们，正是这种自由行动的能力This capacity to act freely, Kant tells us,赋予了人类独有的尊严is what gives human life its special dignity.尊重人类的尊严，意味着不仅仅要将人Respecting human dignity means regarding persons视为实现目的的手段，而且要将人本身也视为目的not just as means but also as ends in themselves.这就是为什么，为了某些人的幸福，And this is why it's wrong to use people而利用其他人，是错误的for the sake of other peoples' well-being or happiness.康德说，这就是功利主义是错误的This is the real reason, Kant says,真正原因that utilitarianism goes wrong.这就是，尊重他人的尊严，维护他人的权利This is the reason it's important to respect the dignity of persons是什么重要的原因所在and to uphold their rights.即使有些情况，还记得约翰·密尔曾说过So, even if there are cases, remember John Stewart Mill said,“长远看来，只要我们坚持正义"Well, in the long run, if we uphold justice并尊重个人的尊严and respect the dignity of persons,我们就可以实现人类幸福的最大化。”we will maximize human happiness."康德会怎样看待这句话呢？What would Kant's answer be to that?他的回答会是什么？What would his answer be?就算这句话说的是真的Even if that were true,就算计算出来，显示确实是这样的（功利主义只看效用）even if the calculus worked out that way,就算你也不能把基督徒扔进（斗兽场的）狮子群里（第2集的例子）even if you shouldn't throw the Christian's to the lions理由是，从长远来看，恐惧将会蔓延because in the long run fear will spread,总体的效用会下降the overall utility will decline.功利主义者们坚持了正义The utilitarian would be upholding justice and right尊重了个人，但其理由却是错误的and respect for persons for the wrong reason,（功利主义者们这样做）纯粹是依赖于外部情况而定for a purely a contingent reason,其做事的理由是工具性的for an instrumental reason.功利主义依然可能会利用人民It would still be using people,即使计算出长期的效用，得出这样做是最佳的even where the calculus works out for the best in the long run,它还是把人当作手段来利用it would still be using people as means而不是尊重人，把人本身也视为目的rather than respecting them as ends in themselves.这就是康德的想法：把自由视为自主的So, that's Kant's idea of freedom as autonomy你们可以看到，这与他的道德观点之间的联系and you can begin to see how it's connected to his idea of morality.但是我们还要回答一个问题But we still have to answer one more question,一开始是什么，赋予了行为的道德价值？what gives an act its moral worth in the first place?如果那些需要被满足的需要、欲望、效用If it can't be directed,是无法被操纵的，that utility or satisfying wants and desires,是什么赋予了行为的道德价值呢？what gives an action its moral worth?这个问题将我们从康德苛刻的自由观This leads us from Kant's demanding idea of freedom转到他那苛刻的道德观to his demanding idea of morality.康德是怎么说的呢？What does Kant say?行为的道德价值What makes an action morally worthy并非在于行为，行为所产生的结果consists not in the consequences or in the results that flow from it,行为的道德价值，与行为的动机有关what makes an action morally worthy has to do with the motive,与意志的品质有关with the quality of the will,与行为的意图有关with the intention for which the act is done.关键的是动机What matters is the motive而且必须是某种类型的动机and the motive must be of a certain kind.因此，某一行为的道德价值So, the moral worth of an action取决于行为的动机depends on the motive for which it's done重要的是，那个人and the important thing is that the person出于正确的目的，做了正确的事do the right thing for the right reason.“高尚的意志之所以高尚，并不是看它的效果”"A good will isn't good because of what it affects or accomplishes,"康德写道，“它本身就是高尚的Kant writes, "it's good in itself.即使尽了最大的努力，也一无所成Even if by its utmost effort, the goodwill accomplishes nothing,它仍像珠宝一样，因其自身而闪耀it would still shine like a jewel for its own sake它本身就蕴含了全部的价值。”as something which has its full value in itself."因此，如果某种行为在道德上是好的And so, for any action to be morally good,仅仅符合道德准则是不够的it's not enough that it should conform to the moral law,其目的必须是道德的it must also be done for the sake of the moral law.康德的观点是，动机赋予了行为的道德价值The idea is that the motive confers the moral worth on an action而且只有一种动机，可以给行为赋予的道德价值and the only kind of motive that can confer moral worth on an action这就是出于职责的动机is the motive of duty.那么，基于职责的动机Well, what's the opposite of doing something out of a sense of duty它的反面是什么呢？because it's right?在康德看来，Well for Kant,责任的对立就是所有那些the opposite would be all of those motives与我们的偏好相关的动机having to do with our inclinations.“偏好” 是指我们所有的欲望And inclinations refer to all of our desires,所有依外部情况而定的渴望all of our contingently given wants,喜好、冲动，诸如此类。preferences, impulses, and the like.只有出于道德准则Only actions done for the sake of the moral law,出于职责所采取的行为for the sake of duty,才具有道德价值only these actions have moral worth.现在，我想知道，你们对这个观点有何看法Now, I want to see what you think about this idea但是首先，让我们来思考一些例子but first let's consider a few examples.康德以曾经以一个店主来做例子Kant begins with an example of a shopkeeper.他想藉此引出直觉He wants to bring out the intuition来合理的说明and make plausible the idea赋予行为以道德价值的that what confers moral worth on an action是行为的目的本身是正确的is that it be done because it's right.他说，假设有个店主He says suppose there's a shopkeeper一位陌生的顾客and an inexperienced customer comes in.店主知道，他可以故意给这位客人，找错零钱，或者少找零钱The shopkeeper knows that he could give the customer the wrong change,而且不会因此受到任何惩罚could shortchange the customer and get away with it;至少顾客本人一定会被蒙在鼓里。at least that customer wouldn't know.尽管如此，店主还是说，But the shopkeeper nonetheless says,“好吧，如果少给这位顾客少找零钱，这事情可能会传出去"Well, if I shortchange this customer, word may get out,我的信誉会因此受损my reputation would be damaged,我的生意也会遭受损失and I would lose business,因此，我不应该给这位顾客少找零钱”so I won't shortchange this customer."这位店主没有犯错The shopkeeper does nothing wrong,他找给客人分毫不差的零钱he gives the correct change,但是他的这一行为是否具有道德价值呢？but does his action have moral worth?康德的回答是“不”，这位店主的行为不能说是高尚的Kant says no, it doesn't have moral worth因为他的行为虽然正确，但他这样做的理由却是错误的because the shopkeeper only did the right thing for the wrong reason,他是为了自己的利益out of self-interest.这个例子非常简单易懂That's a pretty straightforward case.康德还举了另一个例子——自杀。Then he takes another case, the case of suicide.他说，我们有维持自己生命的职责He says we have a duty to preserve ourselves.当然，对于大多数珍爱自己生命的人来说，Now, for most people who love life,有很多理由不放弃生命we have multiple reasons for not taking our own lives.因此，我们唯一的方法So, the only way we can really tell,那些没有放弃生命的人，the only way we can isolate the operative motive只有一个办法，区分出他们的动机是有效的for someone who doesn't take his or her life就是想象，一个十分不幸的人is to think – to imagine someone who's miserable过着极度痛苦的生活and who despite having an absolutely miserable life却仍然知道，他有维持自己生命的职责nonetheless recognizes the duty to preserve one's self没有去自杀and so does not commit suicide.这个例子的作用在于，它把关键的动机引出来The force of the example is to bring out the motive that matters就道德而言，至关重要的是and the motive that matters for morality出于职责，而做正确的事is doing the right thing for the sake of duty.让我再给大家举另外一些例子Let me just give you a couple of other examples.美国商业促进局，他们的口号是什么？The Better Business Bureau, what's their slogan?他们的口号是The slogan of the Better Business Bureau:“诚信是最好的政策"Honesty is the best policy.也是最能带来利润的、”It's also the most profitable."这是它在纽约时报做的整版的广告This is the Better Business Bureau's full page ad in the New York Times,