## 有一个点确实说得很对And ## did have a point哲学确实会让我们疏远He had a point because philosophy distances us我们过去的惯例习俗，预定的假设，固有的观念from conventions, from established assumptions, from settle beliefs这些都是风险，个人上的和政治上的Those are the risks, personal and political而在面对这些风险，我们有一个特别的回避方式And at the face of these risks there's a characteristic evasion回避方式叫怀疑主义The name of the evasion is scepticism怀疑主义是这样的It's the idea that goes something like this我们不会彻底地去解决问题We didn't resolve once for all无论是我们一开始讨论过的个案或原则either the cases or the principles we're arguing when we began如果亚里士多德，洛克，康德和密尔And if Aristotle and Locke and Kant and Mill haven't solved these quesitons经过这些年，都没有解决这些问题after all of these years你觉得我们是谁？ 我们坐在这个Sanders剧院里Who are we to think? That, we here in Sanders Theater经过一个学期就能解决这些问题over the course of this semester can resolve them或许，我们只要每个人还是坚持自己的原则So maybe it's just a matter of each person having his own principles我们也不会对别人的原则，有什么好说的and there's nothing more to say about it不去进行推理、思考no way of reasoning这是在逃避，这是怀疑主义的逃避That's the evasion, the evasion of scepticism对你们在座的每位，我提出以下的答复To each I'd offer the following reply这些问题确实是已经被辩论过很长时间了It's true these quesitons have been debated for a very long time事实上，这些问题和讨论还在重复着but the very fact that they've recurred and persisted这可能意味着，在某种意义上，他们不可能的may suggest though they're impossible in one sense在另外一种情况下，他们却是不可避免的they're unavoidable in another无法避开它们的原因在于the reason that they're unavoidable, the reason that they're inescapable是因为我们就生活在这些问题的答案中is that we live some answer to these questions everyday因此，怀疑主义只是让你放手，So scepticism just throwing up your hands, and given up by moral reflection放弃思考道德问题并不是问题的答案is no solution康德曾经很好地形容过怀疑主义Immanuel Kant described very well the problems with scepticism when he wrote他写道，怀疑主义是人类推理的安息之地"Scepticism is a resting place for human reasoning它只是让我们在一些教条之间徘徊where it can relect on dogmatic wandering它不是我们最好的安身之处but it's no dwelling place`for permanent settlement怀疑主义只是简单地默许，它不足以经受住“鲁莽”的推理simply to acquiesce, scepticism can't never suffice to overcome the recklessness of reason我试图提出这些故事，这些论点I've tried to suggest to these stories and these argument可能会是一种风险some sense of risk and temptation of the perils and the possibility最后，我来总结一下I'd simply conclude by saying本课程的目的是唤醒我们鲁莽的推理The end of this course is to awaken recklessness of reason然后看看我们最后会走到哪里and to see where I might lead谢谢Thank you very much上一次我们谈到了几个故事，Last time we started out with some stories电车司机碰到的一些道德困境with some moral dilemmas about trolley cars以及有关医生和几个患者的问题，and about doctors and healthy patients,这些病人还曾面临着，被拿走器官的危险vulnerable to be victims of organ transplatation我们注意到两个争论we notice two things about the arguments we had那跟与我们争论的方式有关one had to do with the way we were arguing我们一开始讲了一个特殊的案例，并让大家来选择We began with our judgement and particular case我们试图阐明它们背后的原因和原则we tried to articulate the reasons and principles我们的决策背后的原因lied behind our judgement然后又讨论了一个新的情形and then confronted with a new case我们发现，我们不得不重新审视我们之前的原则we found ourselves reexamining those principles不得不做出些调整，来使我们不会前后矛盾revising each in the light of the other我们注意到要看清这些问题并不是那么简单We notice the build-in pressure to try to bring into enlightenment我们对具体案件的判断our judgement about particular cases我们经过反思之后，最后认同的原则and the principle we would endorse on relection我们也注意到这些争论的本质we also notice something about subtance of the arguments那些从讨论中引出的争论that emerged from the discussion我们注意到，有时候我们觉得判断一个行为十分道德we notice sometimes we were tempted to locate the morality of an act取决于行为的后果，而不理会这些行为本身in the consequences, in the results, in the escape of the rules that brought about我们把这种称为结果主义的道德推理We call this consequentialist moral reasoning但是，我们也注意到在某些情况下But we also notice in some cases我们不仅会受行为结果的影响we weren't swayed only by the results有时，我们感到不只是后果，sometimes many of us felt not just consequences but also而且还 行为内在的性质the intrinsic quality or character of the act matters morally你们中有些人认为，有些事情是绝对错误的some people aruged there're certain things that are just categorically wrong即使他们带来一个好的后果even if they brings about a good result,即使是用1条生命换回5条生命even if they save five people at the cost of one life因此，我们对比了一下结果主义和绝对主义so we contrast the consequentialist moral principles with categorical one在今天和未来几天里，我们将开始思考Today and in the next few days, we'll begin to examine one of the most influential结果主义中 最有影响力的一个道德理论versions of consequentialist moral theory这就是功利主义哲学That's the philosophy of Utilitarianism边沁，18世纪英国政治哲学家Jeremy Bentham, the 18th century Enligsh pholitical philosopher首先明确、系统的表达了功利主义道德理论gave first clear and systematic expression to the Utilitarian moral theory边沁基本思想 是一个非常简单的Bentham's idea, his essential idea, is a very simple one而且听起来就觉得很好道理的With a lot of morally intuitive appeal边沁认为Bentham's idea is the following凡是能将效用最大化的事，就是正确的、公正的The right thing, the just thing to to is to maximize utility效用是什么意思呢？What do you mean by utility?效用的意思是，在快乐和痛苦之间找到一个平衡点，He meant by utility the balance of pleasure over pain,在享乐和受苦之间找到一个平衡点happiness over suffering我们通过这样，来得出最大化的效用Here're how we arrive at the principle of maximizing utility于是，他开始观察到身边的人，所有的人He started out by observing that all of us, all human beings我们都是被两样东西支配着are governed by two sovereign masters痛苦和快乐Pain and pleasure.我们都喜欢快乐，不喜欢痛苦We human beings like pleasure and dislike pain因此，我们的道德就建立在so we should base morality我们是否正在考虑，怎样过我们的生活whether we're thinking about what to do in our own lives或者 作为一个立法者或公民or whehter as legislators or citizens我们正在考虑法律应该是怎样we're thinking about what the law should be关于个人的或集体的the right thing to do individually or collectively正确的事就是最大限度提高了整体的幸福水平is to maximize, acting a way that maximizes the overall level of happiness边沁功利主义有这样一个口号Bentham Utilitarianism is sometimes summed up in this slogan为最多数人谋取最大的利益the greatest good for the greatest number在这样的功利主义的基本原则下With this basic principle of Utilitarianism on hand通过另一种情形，另一个故事，我们开始进行检验let's begin to test it and to examine it并研究它by turning to another case, another story但这次我们讨论的不是假设的故事，而是一个真正发生的事but this time, not hypothetical story, a real life story英国女王与Dudley和Stephens案件the case of the Queen versus Dudley and Stephens这是19世纪英国的法律案件，This is 19th century British law case,许多有名的法学院也辩论过这个案件that famous and much debated in law school以下是案件的过程Here's what happened in the case我整理了一下故事，我想听听I summerize the story and I want to hear你将想像成你是陪审团，你会怎么判决how you would rule imagining you're the jury当时的报纸报道，描述了故事的背景A newspaper account of the time, described the background这是发生在海上遇难的十分令人痛惜的故事A sader story of a disaster at sea was never told关于一艘叫Mignonette的游艇than that of the surviors of the yacht Mignonette这艘游艇是在南大西洋，距离海角1.3万英里的地方被发现的The ship found it in the south Atlantic 13,000 miles from the cape船上有4名船员。Dudley是船长There're four in the crew. Dudley was the captainSteven是另外一名船员。Brooks是水手。Steven was the first mate. Brooks was the sailor.这些人都是些品行不坏的人，报纸这样描述All men of excellent character or so, that's the newspaper account tells us第四组成员是船上侍者，17岁的ParkerThe fourth group member was the cabin boy, Richard Parker, 17 years old他是一个孤儿。他没有家庭He was an orphan. He had no family这是在他第一次出海远航And he was on his first long voyage sea他不听朋友们的劝阻He went, the news account tells us,义无反顾地踏上了旅程rather against the advice of his friends他去的时候是 充满希望的、年轻人的雄心He went in the hopefulness of youthful ambition他以为，这次的旅程将会让他成为一个真正的男人thinking the journey would make a man of him遗憾的是，并没有他预想那样Sadly was not to be案件的经过并没有什么争议That fact of the case was not in the dispute波浪击中了船，后来就坠毁了A wave hit the ship. It went down4名船员逃到救生艇The four crew members escaped to a lifeboat唯一的食物，是两罐大头菜The only food they had was two cans of preserved turnip没有水No fresh water前几天，他们什么都没吃For the first few days, they ate nothing在第四天，他们打开了一罐大头菜On the fourth days, they opened of the cans of turnip and ate it.接着的那天，他们吃了一只龟The next day, they cutted a turtle连同其他大头菜Together with other cans of turnut,这样他们能勉强地度过了几天the turtle enabled them to subsist for next few days第八天，他们什么都没吃。没有食物。没有水And for eight days, they had nothing. No food. No water想象一下，在这样的情况下，你会怎么做？Imagine yourself in this situation like that, what would you do?以下是他们的做法Here's what they did截至目前，船上侍者Parker398By now, the cabin boy,Parker,正躺在救生艇的一个角落is lying at the bottom of the lifeboat in the corner因为他不听其他人的意见，喝了海水because he had drunk sea water against the advice of others他病倒了，他似乎还奄奄一息He became ill and he appeared to be dying因此，第19日，Dudley船长提议