others cling to rocks; some are fertilised by otherwise barren sands, and would wither away if one tried to transplant them to better soil. Nature grants to each what suits it, and works against their perishing while they can possibly remain alive. I need hardly remind you that all plants seem to have their mouths buried in the earth, and so they suck up nourishment by their roots and diffuse their strength through their pith and bark: the pith being the softest part is always hidden away at the heart and covered, protected, as it were, by the strength of the wood; while outside, the bark, as being the defender who endures the best, is opposed to the unkindness of the we ather. Again, how great is nature's care, that they should all propagate themselves by the reproduction of their seed; they all, as is so well known, are like regular machines not merely for lasting a time, but for reproducing themselves for ever, a nd that by their own kinds. Things too which are supposed to be inanimate, surely do all seek after their own by a like process. For why is flame carried upward by its lightness, while solid things are carried down by their weight, unless it be that these positions and movements are suitable to each? Further, each thing preserves what is suitable to itself, and what is harmful, it destroys. Hard things, such as stones, cohere with the utmost tenacity of their parts, and resist easy dissolution; while liquids, water, and air, yield easily to division, but quickly slip back to mingle their parts________________________________________Page 92which have been cut asunder. And fire cannot be cut at all.'We are not now discussing t he voluntary movements of a reasoning mind, but the natural instinct. For instance, we unwittingly digest the food we have eaten, and unconsciously breathe in sleep. Not even in animals does this love of self-preservation come from mental wishes, but from elementary nature. For often the will, under stress of external causes, embraces the idea of death, from which nature revolts in horror.1 And, on the other hand, the will sometimes restrains what nature alwa ys desires, namely the operation of begetting, by which alone the continuance of mortal things becomes enduring. Thus far, then, this love of self- preservation arises not from the reasoning animal s intention, but from natural instinct. Providence h as given to its creatures this the greatest cause of permanent existence, the instinctive desire to remain existent so far as possible. Wherefore you have no reason to doubt that all things, which exist, seek a permanent existence by nature, and simi larly avoid extinction.''Yes,' I said,'I confess that I see now beyond all doubt what appeared to me just now uncertain.''But,' she continued,'that which seeks to continue its existence, aims at un ity; for take92:1 -- Boethius is possibly thinking here of passages in Plato's Republic, Bk. iv. (439-441) where Socrates points out the frequent opposition of reason and instinct.________________________________________Page 93this away, and none will have any chance of continued existence.''That is true.''Then all things desire unity,' she said, and I agreed.'But we have shewn unity to be identical with the good? ''Yes,' said I.'Then all things desire the good; and that you may define as being the absolute good which is desired by all.''Nothing could be more truthfully reasoned. For either everything is brought back to nothing, and all will flow on at random with no guiding head; or if there is any universal aim, it will be the sum of all good.''Great is my rejoicing, m y son,' said she, 'for you have set firmly in your mind the mark of the central truth. And hereby is made plain to you that which you a short time ago said that you knew not.''What was that? ''What was the final aim of all things,' she said,' for that is plainly what is desired by all: since we have agreed that that is the good, we must confess that the good is the end of all things.'If any man makes search for trut h with all his penetration, and would be led astray by no deceiving paths, let him turn upon himself the light of an inward gaze, let him bend by force the long-drawn wanderings of his thoughts into________________________________________Page 94one circle; l et him tell surely to his soul, that he has, thrust away within the treasures of his mind, all that he labours to acquire without. Then shall that truth, which now was hid in error's darkening cloud, shine forth more clear than Phoebus's self. For th e body, though it brings material mass which breeds forgetfulness, has never driven forth all light from the mind. The seed of truth does surely cling within, and can be roused as a spark by the fanning of philosophy. For if it is not so, how do ye men make answers true of your own instinct when teachers question you? Is it not that the quick spark of truth lies buried in the heart's low depths? And if the Muse of Plato sends through those depths the voice of truth, each man has not forgotten a nd is but reminding himself of what he learns.'1 When she made an end, I said,'I agree very strongly with Plato; for this is the second time that you have reminded me of these thoughts. The first time I had lost them through the material influence of the body; the second, when overwhelmed by this weight of trouble.''If,' said she,' you look back upon what we that have agreed upon earlier, you will also soon recall what you just now said you knew not.''What is that? ' I asked.94:1 -- Plato's doctrine of remembrance is chiefly treated of in his Ph?;do and Meno.________________________________________Page 95'The guidance by which the universe is directed.''Yes, I remember confessing my ignorance, and though I think I foresee the answer you will offer, I am eager to hear you explain it more fully.' 'This world,' she said,' you thought a little while ago must without doubt be guided by God.''And I think so now,' I said,'and will never think there is any doubt thereof; and I will shortly explain b y what reasoning I arrive at that point. This universe would never have been suitably put together into one form from such various and opposite parts, unless there were some One who joined such different parts together; and when joined, the very vari ety of their natures, so discordant among themselves, would break their harmony and tear them asunder unless the One held together what it wove into one whole. Such a fixed order of nature could not continue its course, could not develop motions tak ing such various directions in place, time, operation, space, and attributes, unless there were One who, being immutable, had the disposal of these various changes. And this cause of their remaining fixed and their moving, I call God, according to th e name familiar to all.'Then said she,' Since these are your feelings, I think there is but little trouble left me before you may revisit your home with happiness in your grasp. But let us look into the matter we________________________________________Page 96have set before ourselves. Have we not shewn that complete satisfaction exists in true happiness, and we have agreed that God is happiness itself, have we not? ''We have.''Wherefore He needs no external aid in governing the universe, or, if He had any such need, He would not have this complete sufficiency.''That of necessity follows,' I said.'Then He arranges all thi ngs by Himself.' Without doubt He does.''And God has been shewn to be the absolute good.''Yes, I remember.''Then He arranges all things by good, if He arranges them by Him self, whom we have agreed to be the absolute good. And so this is the tiller and rudder by which the ship of the universe is kept sure and unbreakable.''I feel that most strongly,' I said; 'and I foresaw that you would say s o before, though I had a slight uncertainty.''I believe you,' she said,' for now you bring your eyes more watchfully to scan the truth. But what I am going to say is no less plain to the sight.''Wh at is that; ''Since we may reasonably be sure that God steers all things by the helm of goodness, and, as I have shewn you, all things have a natural instinct to hasten towards the good, can there be any doubt that they are guided according to________________________________________Page 97their own will: and that of their own accord they turn to the will of the supreme disposer, as though agreeing with, and obedient to, the helmsman? ''That is so,' I s aid,'and the government would not seem happy if it was a yoke upon discontented necks, and not the salvation of the submissive.''Then nothing need oppose God's way for its own nature's preservation.'&nbs p;'No.''But if it try to oppose Him, will it ever have any success at all against One whom we have justly allowed to be supremely powerful in matters of happiness? ''Certainly not.'&n bsp; 'Then there is nothing which could have the will or the power to resist the highest good? ' I think not.''Then it is the highest good which is guiding with strength and disposing with gentleness? '& nbsp; Then said I,'How great pleasure these things give me! not only those which have been proved by the strongest arguments, but still more the words in which you prove them, which make me ashamed that my folly has bragged so loudly.'& nbsp; 'You have heard in mythology how the giants attacked heaven. It was this kindly strength which overthrew them too, as was their desert. But would you care to put these________________________________________Page 98arguments at variance? For pe rhaps from such a friction, some fair spark of truth may leap forth.''As you hold best,' I said.'Nobody would care to doubt that God is all-powerful? ''At any rate, no san e man would doubt it.''Being, then, all-powerful, nothing is beyond His power? ''Nothing.''Can, then, God do evil? ''No.'&nbs p;'Then evil is nothing, since it is beyond His power, and nothing is beyond His power? ''Are you playing with me,' I asked,' weaving arguments as a labyrinth out of which I shall find no way? You may enter a labyrinth by th e way by which you may come forth: come now forth by the way you have gone in: or are you folding your reason in some wondrous circle of divine simplicity? A little while ago you started from happiness, and said that happiness was the highest good; a nd you shewed how that rested in the highest Deity. And you reasoned that God too was the highest good, and the fullest happiness; and you allowed, as though granting a slight gift, that none could be happy except such as were similarly divine. Agai n, you said that the essence of God and of happiness was identical with the very form of good; and that that alone was good which was sought by all nature. And you argued, too, that God guided this universe by the helm of________________________________________Page 99goodness; and that all creatures with free will obeyed this guidance, and that there was no such thing as natural evil; and all these things you developed by no help from without, but by homely and internal proofs, each gaining its credence from that which went before it.'Then she answered,' I was not mocking you. We have worked out the greatest of all matters by the grace of God, to whom we prayed. For the form of the divine essence is such that it is not dif fused without, nor receives aught into itself from without. But as Parmenides says of it, " It is a mass well rounded upon all sides."1 But if you examine it with reasoning, sought for not externally but by lying w ithin the sphere of the very thing we are handling, you will not wonder at what you have learnt on Plato's authority,2 that our language must be akin to the subjects of which we speak.'H appy the man who could reach the crystal fount of good: happy he who could shake off99:1 -- This is a verse from the poems in which Parmenides embodied his philosophy: this was the doctrine of the unity which must have been in Boethius's mind above. Parmenides, the founder of the Eleatic school (495 B.C.) was perhaps, considering his early date, the greatest and most original of Greek philosophers. Boethius probably did not make a clear distinction between the philo sopher's own poems and the views expressed in Plato's Parmenides.99:2 -- Plato in the Timoeus says,' The language must also be akin to the subjects of which its words are the interpreters' -- -(29 B.).________________________________________Page 100the chains of matter and of earth. The singer of Thrace in olden time lamented his dead wife: by his tearful strains he made the trees to follow him, and bound the flowing streams to stay: for him the hind would fea rlessly go side by side with fiercest lions, and the hare would look upon the hound, nor be afraid, for he was gentle under the song's sway. But when the hotter flame burnt up his inmost soul, even the strains, which had subdued all other things, co uld not soothe their own lord's mind. Complaining of the hard hearts of the gods above, he dared approach the realms below. There he tuned his songs to soothing tones, and sang the lays he had drawn from his mother's1 fount of excellence. His unrestrained grief did give him power, his love redoubled his grief's power: his mourning moved the depths of hell. With gentlest prayers he prayed to the lords of the shades for grace. The three-headed porter2 was taken captive with amazement at his fresh songs. The avenging goddesses,3 who haunt with fear the guilty, poured out sad tears. Ixion's4 wheel no longer swi ftly turned. Tantalus,5 so long abandoned unto thirst, could100:1 -- Orpheus's mother was the Muse Calliope, mistress of the Castalian fount.100:2 -- The dog Cerberus.100:3 -- The Furies.100:4 -- Ixion for his crimes was bound upon a rolling wheel100:5 -- Tantalus for h is crimes was condemned to perpetual hunger and thirst though surrounded by fruits and water which ever eluded his grasp.________________________________________Page 101then despise the flowing stream. The vulture, satisfied by his strains, tore not awhil e at Tityos's1 heart. At last the lord of the shades2 in pity cried: "We are conquered; take your bride with you, bought by your song; but one condition binds our gift: till s he has left these dark abodes, turn not your eyes upon her." Who shall set a law to lovers? Love is a greater law unto itself. Alack! at the very bounds of darkness Orpheus looked upon his Eurydice; looked, and lost her, and was lost himself. 'To you too this tale refers; you, who seek to lead your thoughts to the light above. For whosoever is overcome of desire, and turns his gaze upon the darkness 'neath the earth, he, while he looks on hell, loses the prize he carri ed off.'101:1 -- Tityos for his crimes was for ever fastened to the ground while a vulture devoured his entrails.101:2 -- Pluto.________________________________________Page 102第四章 对缺陷的慰藉自知说了或做了蠢事，那不算什么，我们必须吸取的更加充分而重要的教训是：我们都是大笨蛋。——蒙田西塞罗在《图斯库卢姆谈话录》（书斋中有一本）中对智力工作大加赞赏：没有比做学问更美妙的职业了；做学问就是使我们在今世了解物质的无限，了解自然界、天、地、海洋的无比伟大；做学问教给我们虔诚、克己、心胸宽大，它把我们的灵魂从黑暗中拉出来，让它见识万物--最高的、最低的、最先的、最后的，以及所有在两端中间的；做学问给我们以过美好幸福生活的手段，它教给我们如何无怨无惑地度过一生。尽管蒙田家藏千卷书，而且得益于良好的古典教育，这段赞辞却使他愤怒填膺。他一反平时的性格，以这样激烈的言词表达他的愤慨：人其实是很可怜的……听他吹牛……这家伙是不是在描述全能而不朽的上帝！实际上，成千上万的村妇在自己村子里过着比他（西塞罗）更宁静、平和、有恒的生活。这位罗马哲学家傲然无视这样的事实：大多数学者的遭遇都是极端不幸的；在天地万物中惟独人被选中去承受骇人听闻的苦难，以至于在黑暗的深渊中我们常恨自己生而为人，还不如蚂蚁和乌龟。没有经过试验，最低等的农场牲畜也能胜过古代顶尖智者的超然物外的修养。希腊哲学家庇隆有一次乘船旅行遇到了大风暴。所有的乘客都惊惶失措，害怕那脆弱的船不堪汹涌怒潮一击。只有一名乘客没有失态，静静地坐在一角，表情泰然自若。那是一头猪。我们还敢说拥有理性的好处是为了缓解我们的苦难吗？（我们把理性抬得那么高，并且据此认为自己可以君临万物之上。）如果有了知识，我们失去了没有它反倒能够享受的宁静，有了知识，我们的生活状态还不如庇隆故事里的猪，那要知识作什么呢？思想是否给了我们任何值得感谢的东西，是大可质疑的。我们获得了反复无常、犹疑不决、怀疑、痛苦、迷信、焦虑（为可能发生的事，即使是死后）、野心、贪婪、妒忌、艳羡、桀骜不驯、疯狂、食欲难填、战争、谎言、不忠、背后中伤人和猎奇。我们以公平、善于推理的理性以及判断和认知的能力而自豪，但是我们为此付出的代价之过分也异乎寻常。自知说了或做了蠢事，那不算什么，我们必须吸取的更加充分而重要的教训是：我们都是大笨蛋。最大的笨蛋就是西塞罗这样的哲学家，因为他们根本想象不到自己竟会是笨蛋。对理性的错误自信就是产生白痴的源泉——同时，间接地，也产生缺陷。蒙田坐在他的画栋雕梁下勾画出了一种新的哲学：承认我们离古代大多数思想家以为的那种理性的、宁静的生物有多远。我们的心灵多半是歇斯底里、胡言乱语、粗鲁而躁动，相比之下，动物在许多方面显得是健康和美德的模范——对这一不幸的现实，哲学家是有责任反思的，而他们很少这样做。我们的生活部分是疯狂，部分是智慧。但是凡描写生活的人总是恭敬地对其中一大部分讳莫如深。然而，如果我们承认自己的弱点，不再以自己并不掌握的本事自诩，那么——根据蒙田慷慨的、赎救哲学——我们以自己特有的半是聪明、半是笨蛋的方式，终究还能达到差强人意的程度。摘录巍峨的哲学颠峰如果没有人能呆在上面，规则如果超过我们的实践能力，又有何用？多数学府的教育思想是：学生对世界（历史、科学、文学）的知识越多越好，但是蒙田提出了一条非厂重要的补充命题：一个人如果有大智，就会用是否有用和是否适合于自己的生活这把标尺来衡量一切事物的真价值。只有能使我们感觉更好的东西才值得学习。正如以奇装异服来吸引人注意是小家子气一样，言词也是一样；寻求新奇的说法或生僻的字眼是出于幼稚的小学教员式的虚荣心。但愿我的写作能做到只限于巴黎中央菜市场的词汇。在我家乡加斯科涅的氛围中，人们见我印出来的文字感到滑稽。我的名声所到之处，离我家越远，评价越高。他的家人和随从听过他的打鼾，见过他换床单，在对待他的态度中绝没有他在巴黎所受到的敬意，更不用与他死后相比了。蒙田并不是自怜自艾；他只是以一些对当代陈义较高的作品的批评为例，说明一种有害的症状：本能地认为真理总是在原理我们的地方，在另一种气候中，在古代图书馆，在很久以前的人写的书中。问题是，真正有价值的东西是否为生于巴特农神殿落成和罗马陷落之间这段时期的极少数天才所专有，还是如蒙田大胆提出的，它也向你我开放。我们每一个人都比自以为的更富有。善良而平凡的生活，努力寻求智慧而从未远离愚蠢，有此成就足矣。第五章 对伤心的慰藉我们在婚姻中寻找的不是智力的享受，而是繁衍后代。——叔本华就悲情而言，可能他是哲学家中感情最细腻的。1788年，阿瑟?叔本华生于但泽。后来他以遗憾的心情看待自己的出生：“我的一生可视为一段无用之插页，是对我长眠于‘无’之极乐境界的干扰。”他进一步阐明：“人的存在是一种错误，可以说今天很坏，一天比一天坏，直到最坏的事出现。”1818年，他写完《作为意志和表象的世界》，自知是一篇杰作。那篇文章里解释他为何缺少朋友：“一个天才是很难合群的，因为除了他的独白之外还有什么对话能如此智慧而有趣呢？”1819年，《作为意志和表象的世界》出版。售出230册。“任何人生的历史都是苦难的历史”；“但愿我能驱除把一代蚂蝗和青蛙视为同类的幻觉，那就太好了”。1820年，叔本华在柏林谋求到一个在大学教哲学的教职。他开讲座，讲“哲学的整体：即世界与人的思想之精华的理论”。只有5名学生来听。而在旁边一座楼里，可以听到他的对手黑格尔正对着300名听众讲学。他开始不再对学术界抱有幻想：“作为通例，还不曾有人认真对待哲学，讲哲学的人尤其不，正如作为通例，没有人比教皇对基督教义更少信仰。”1821年，叔本华与一名19岁的歌手卡罗琳?梅东坠入情网。他们的关系断断续续维持了10年，但叔本华无意把这一关系正式化：“结婚意味着尽量做使对方讨厌之事。”但是他向往一夫多妻制：“一夫多妻制的许多好处之一是：做丈夫的不必与妻子的娘家亲戚们关系如此密切，方今就是对这点的恐惧阻止了许多婚姻。与其要一个丈母娘不如要十个！”1825年，在学术界失败之后，叔本华想做翻译家。但是他提出把康德译成英文和把《项狄传》译成德文，均遭出版社拒绝。他在一封信中提到“在布尔乔亚社会中占一席之地”是凄惨愿望，却从未实现。1831年，他瞩意于一名17岁是活泼美丽的姑娘弗罗拉?魏斯。在一次游船的聚会上，他向她献殷勤，对她微笑，递给她一串白葡萄。弗罗拉在日记中写到：“我并不想要这串葡萄，因为老叔本华接触过它，我感到恶心，就悄悄地在身后让它滑到水里了。”叔本华匆匆离开了柏林：“生命本质上没有任何价值，只是靠需要和幻觉保持运动。”此时与他关系最亲密的是一只接一只的卷毛狗，他感到它们有着人类所缺乏的温柔和谦卑：“一看到任何动物，我就开心。”1844年，他的《作为意志和表象的世界》出第二版。这一版销售量还不到300册。“吾人最大乐事莫过于受到仰慕；但是仰慕者有种种原因不愿表达其仰慕之情。因此，能以不论荷重方式衷心自我仰慕者是最快乐的人。”1851年，他出版了一部随笔和格言的选集《杂文与笔记》，出乎意料的是这本书成为畅销书。他收到许多崇拜者来信。他的反应是：“一个人长期处于微不足道、倍受冷落之后，人们终于敲锣打鼓地来了，还把这当回事！”不过他也从中得到一些满足：“如果一个具有伟大思想的人把捉摸不定的舆论当作指北星，他还能实现他的目标，坚持常年创作吗？”1859年，盛名之下，他受到了女性的关注，他对她们的看法也有所缓和。原来他认为她们“适合做幼儿的保姆和教师，正是因为她们自己幼稚、愚蠢和见识短”，现在的看法是：她们能做到无私和有洞察力。1860年，健康日益恶化，看来离终点不远了：“想到不久以后我的身体将为虫豸吃光，我还能忍受；但是想到那些教授们蚕食我的哲学，使我不寒而栗。”9月底，他在美因河畔散步回家，感到喘不过起来，就此溘然长逝，始终坚信：“人的存在是一种错误”。我们比鼹鼠总还有一项优势。我们同它们一样需要为生存而奋斗，为繁衍后代而求偶，但是除此之外我们还能去戏院、歌剧院和音乐厅，晚上睡在床上还能看小说、哲学书和史诗——叔本华正是从这些活动中找到至高无上的源泉，可以摆脱“生命意志”的需求。我们在艺术和哲学作品中找到的是我们自己的痛苦和奋斗的客观表述，通过声音、语言和形象予以诠释和再现。艺术家和哲学家不仅向我们展示我们的感受，而且以我们自己做不到的尖锐和智慧表达我们的体验；他们将我们生活的各个层面勾画出来，我们能认出是自己的，但是凭自己决不能理解得那么清楚。他们向我们解释我们的生存条件，助我们解惑，并减少孤立无援之感。我们也许不得不继续挖地洞，但是通过创造性的作品，至少能获得片刻的顿悟，洞察我们的苦难，从而可以免于苦难带来的震惊、孤立（甚至受迫害）之感。用叔本华的话来说，艺术与哲学以其不同的方式把痛苦转化为知识。这位哲学家仰慕他母亲的朋友歌德，因为他把许多爱情的痛苦转化为知识，最著名的就是二十五岁时出版的使他享誉全欧洲的那部小说。《少年维特之烦恼》描述一名少年对一位女士的单相思——那迷人的夏绿蒂，她与维特对《威克菲尔子爵》一书有同好，身穿袖子上饰有粉红缎带的白裙；但此书同时也描述了成千上万读者的恋情（据说拿破仑就读过九遍）。最伟大的艺术作品是说给我们大家听的，尽管作者并不认识我们。叔本华如是说：诗人从生活中撷取特定的个体，准确地描述其个性，然而由此却启示了普遍的人性……他表面上只关注这一个，但事实上他所关注的是古往今来普天之下都存在的。因此，一些诗句，特别是诗剧中的句子，即使并非警句格言也经常适用于实际生活。歌德的读者不但在《少年维特之烦恼》中认出了自己，而且也因而更加了解自己，因为歌德将一系列尴尬的、稍纵即逝的爱之瞬间明晰化了，读者以前可能经历过这种情愫，但自己当时并不知其深浅。他披露了爱情的某些规律，叔本华称之为浪漫心理的必要“思想“。例如，歌德把不爱者对待爱自己的人那种貌似慈爱实则极端残酷的态度描写得入木三分。在小说的后半，维特为自己的感情折磨得痛苦不堪，在夏绿蒂面前爆发出来：“夏绿蒂，”他哭道，“我再也不见你了！”“为什么要这样呢？”她回答说：“维特，你还是可以，而且一定要再见到我们的，不过别那么激动。噢！为什么你生来感情这样激烈，对一切身边的事物都那么激情冲动，不能自制！我求求你，”她拿起他的手接着说，“冷静点。想想你的精神、你的知识和你的天赋能给你带来那么多的快乐！”我们不必生活在十八世纪后半叶的德国就能充分体会其含义。世上故事比人少，同样的情节不断地重复，只是人名和背景有所变化。此即叔本华所谓：“艺术的真谛就是以一概千千万。”反过来，意识到我们的境遇只不过是千千万之一，就足以感到慰藉。亚当和夏娃离开天堂时的痛苦并不单单属于他们自己。马萨乔通过这两个人物的面部表情和身体的姿态抓住了痛苦的本质，也就是痛苦这一概念本身。他的壁画是我们可能犯错误、我们的脆弱性的普遍象征。我们大家都是被驱逐出天堂之园的。摘录他同意蒙田的看法：我们的思想是从属于肉体的，尽管我们高傲地持相反的观点。人惟一的先天的错误就是认为我们是生而为追求幸福的……只要我们坚持这一先天的错误……世界在我们看来就是充满了矛盾。因为每走一步，无论大小，我们必然会体会到这个世界和人生决不是为维持幸福生活而安排的……因是之故，几乎每一个年长的人脸上都挂着一种叫做失望的表情。他特别同情鼹鼠，一种发育不良的怪物，住在潮湿而狭隘的地道里，很少见天日，其初生儿长得像滑腻腻的软体虫，但是还是尽一切力量求生存和传宗接代。坚持不懈地用它巨大的铲状脚爪挖洞就是它们毕生的事业，周围是永远的长夜，它们的眼睛生来就是为了逼光……它们受苦受难、毫无乐趣的一生到底获得了什么？生活的苦难和操心与得到的好处完全不相称。第六章 困难中的慰藉从生命中获得极致的圆满和喜悦之秘密就是——生活在险境之中！把你的城市建立在维苏威火山的山坡上。——尼采（一）很少有哲学家推崇悲苦。按照传统的看法，智慧的生活总是与努力减轻苦难、焦虑、绝望、愤怒、自轻和痛心相联系的。（二）弗里德里希?尼采指出，大多数哲学家从来都是“卷心菜头脑”（德文俗语“krautkops”，意谓头脑混乱而中空，犹如我国俗语“脑袋一团浆糊”），而“命中注定，我是第一个像样的人”，他于1888年略带尴尬地承认这一点，“我非常害怕有一天我将被宣布为圣灵。”他把这一天定在第三个千禧年的黎明到来之时：“让我们假设，到2000年左右，人们将获准读《我的著作》。”他认为只要他们读，就一定会喜欢：我觉得手里拿一本我的书是任何人能赋予自己的最有价值的显赫地位。我甚至猜想他拿书时会脱鞋，更不用说靴子了。之所以为显赫，因为在众多“卷心菜头脑”中惟有尼采遗世独立，意识到凡是谋求自我完成的人都应该欢迎各式各样的困难。如果可能的话——这“如果可能”实在是疯狂透顶的想法——你们不是想消灭困难吗？而我们呢？看来我们实在是更愿加剧困难，而且使它达到空前艰巨的程度！尼采虽然按礼数给朋友寄去良好的祝愿，但是他心里明白他们更需要的是什么：对于我所关心的人，我祝愿他们受苦受难、孤寂凄凉、疾病缠身、受尽虐待、备尝屈辱——我希望他们不得免于以下的体验：深刻的自轻自贱、缺乏自信的折磨、一败涂地的悲惨境地。这足以说明为什么他的作品成为（人类）有史以来获得的最伟大的馈赠。尽管这话是他自己说的。（八）尼采的意思是说，这些要素都是任何人要达到自我完成自然必需的。此外，他还添加了一个重要的细节：不经历十分愁苦，是达不到这些要素的：苦与乐如此紧密相连，谁想得到多少这一面，就必须尝到多少另一面……你可以任择其一：是尽量少要快乐，简而言之就是无痛苦呢……还是尽量多要不快，以此为代价，得到迄今很少人享受到的丰富的内在的乐趣？如果你决定选择前者，宁愿减轻人类痛苦的程度，那么你也必须降低人类享乐的能力。人的计划最圆满的完成看来是与某种程度的磨难分不开的，我们最大乐趣的源泉是与我们最大的痛苦别扭地联系在一起的：试看那些最优秀、最完善的个人和民族的历史，请问有哪一棵大树长到这样骄人的高度没有经过风霜雨雪；请问，厄运和外界的阻力，某种仇恨、妒忌、怀疑、顽强抵制、强硬反对、吝啬、暴力，难道不都是有利的条件，无此则任何伟大，即使是美德，也难以成长起来？（二十）对困难持有“基督教”的态度的人并不限于基督徒；尼采认为这是一种永恒的可能性。当我们对于内心渴望而得不到的东西表示淡然时，我们就都变成了基督徒；当我们貌似轻松地说我们不需要爱，或是世俗的地位、金钱、成功、创造，乃至健康时，我们却恨得嘴角都歪了；我们默默地向我们公开放弃的东西开战，从墙垛后面打枪，躲在树上放冷枪。尼采宁愿我们如何对待挫折呢？继续对我们所向往的东西保持信念，即便我们现在没有，也许永远得不到。换言之，抵制那种把难以得到的东西贬为邪恶的诱惑，——也许尼采自己无比悲惨的人生给我们提供了这种行为方式最好的范例。（二十一）伊壁鸠鲁是他早期最喜爱的古代哲学家之一；他称之为“近古时期的灵魂抚慰者”，“最伟大的人物之一，以英雄-田园诗的方式讲哲学的发明家”。最令他神往的伊壁鸠鲁关于与朋友共同生活乐在其中的思想。但是他极少体验与人同乐的满足。“我们生来就是心智的隐者，只有偶逢知音能谈一谈。”他30岁时创作一首关于孤独的赞美诗——《孤独颂》，终于不忍卒篇。求偶的经历也不见得少一些愁苦，问题在于尼采的外表——海象式的特大胡须，还有他的腼腆使他的举止刻板僵硬，像一个退伍少校。1876年春，尼采旅游日内瓦时爱上了一名23岁的碧眼金发女郎，玛蒂尔德?特朗佩达。在一次交谈中谈到亨利?朗费罗的诗，尼采说他还没有见过朗费罗的“追求卓越”的德文版，玛蒂尔德说她家里有一本，愿意抄一份给他。尼采受到鼓励，就请她出去散步。她把房东太太带来作陪。几天以后，尼采自告奋勇为她弹一曲钢琴。再下一次，她从这位巴塞尔大学31岁的古典哲学教授那里听到的是求婚。“难道你不认为我们两人在一起比各自单独生活会更好，更自由，因此更卓越吗？”顽皮的少校问道，“你敢不敢与我共同走完所有生活和思想的道路？”玛蒂尔德不敢。一连串类似的碰壁不断地伤害他。瓦格纳见他精神悒郁，健康不佳，认为只有两种解药：“要么结婚，要么写出一部歌剧。”但是尼采写不出歌剧，而且显然连像样的曲调也创作不出来。1872年7月，他寄给指挥家汉斯?冯?比洛一首他创作的钢琴双重奏，请他给予坦诚的评论。比洛回答说，这是“我长期以来所见过写在乐谱纸上的最匪夷所思、最难听、最反音乐的一套音符”，他怀疑尼采是否腿抽筋了。“你称你的乐曲‘骇人听闻’，真是如此。”瓦格纳却更加坚持己见，他一再劝他，“看在老天的分上，娶一个富婆吧！”他还同尼采的医生奥托?艾泽取得联系，并且告诉他自己猜想尼采的健康不佳是由于手淫过度。具有讽刺意义的是，瓦格纳不知道，尼采真正爱上的那一位富婆正是瓦格纳自己的妻子，科西玛。多年来，尼采一直用朋友式的关心掩盖他的感情。只有一次忍不住真情流露：1889年1月，尼采寄给科西玛一张署名“酒神”的明信片，上面写道：“阿里阿德涅，我爱你。”不过，尼采间或也同意瓦格纳的关于婚姻的重要性的论点。他在给一位以婚友人弗朗兹?奥弗贝克的信中诉苦说：“亏了你的妻子，你的境遇比我的好百倍。你们共同有一个巢，而我充其量有一个穴而已……偶与人接触就像是放假，是自我救赎。”1882年，他又升起希望，以为自己找到了一位合适的妻子，卢?安德烈斯?萨乐美，这是他最大的，最痛苦的恋爱。她21岁，美丽]、聪慧、风骚，迷上了他的哲学。尼采一见倾心。他告诉她：“我不想继续孤独下去，而要再学习做人。啊！实际上我什么都需要学！”他们在陶腾堡森林共度了两星期，在卢塞恩同他们共同的朋友保罗?雷照了一张不寻常的合影。但是卢对尼采作为哲学家比作为丈夫更感兴趣。这次碰壁使尼采陷入长期的、强烈的悒郁之中。“现在我缺乏自信到极点，”他向奥弗贝克诉说，“所有我听到的话都使我感到人们在蔑视我。”他特别怨恨他的母亲和妹妹，她们曾干预他与萨乐美的关系，现在同他断绝了来往，使他陷入更深的孤独。（“我不喜欢我的母亲，我妹妹的声音让我痛苦。我跟她们在一起时总要生病。”）事业上也不顺。尼采生前清醒时，他的著作销量从未超过2000册；多数都只售出几百册。这位作者只靠微薄的退休金和从姑母那里继承的一些股票维持生活，连新衣服都买不起，最后用他自己的话来说，“外表像一头剃了毛的山羊。”他只住便宜的旅店，常常拖欠房租，连取暖费和他所喜爱的火腿香肠的费用都付不起。他的健康很成问题。从学生时代起就病痛不断：头痛、消化不良、呕吐、晕眩、几乎失明，还有失眠。其中许多项都是梅毒的症状，几乎可以肯定他是在1865年2月间在科隆的一家妓院中染上的（尽管尼采自称他除了钢琴什么都没有碰过就出来了）。三年之后他在访问索伦托之后给维达?冯?迈森堡的一封信中称：“说到自苦和禁欲，我过去几年生活堪与任何年代的苦行僧相比美……”他向医生的诉说是：“经常疼痛，有半身麻痹之感，与晕船的感觉非常相似，有时感到说话困难——这种感觉一天持续几小时。与此交替的是一种激烈的发作（最近一次发作迫使我吐了三天三夜，但求速死）。不能看书！写也难得！没法与人交往！听不了音乐！”最后，于1889年1月，尼采在都灵的卡罗?阿尔贝托街头彻底崩溃了，他拥抱了一匹马，随即被送回他的住处，他在那里打算刺杀德国皇帝，策划一场反对反犹主义者的战争，越来越肯定自己是酒神、耶稣、天主、拿破仑、意大利国王、佛、亚历山大大帝、恺撒、伏尔泰、亚历山大?赫尔岑和理查德?瓦格纳——视几点钟而定；然后他就给塞进了一辆火车，云到德国的一家疯人院，以后由他的母亲和妹妹照看，直到11年后去世，享年55岁。摘录人的自我完成不是通过避免痛苦，而是通过承认痛苦是通向任何善的自然的、必经的步骤而达到的。植物的根常常奇形怪状，面目可憎，但是对其潜力有信心的知者可以引导它们长出美丽的花朵和果实。人生亦然，在根部可能情感、处境都很艰难，但是经过精心培植，可以结出最伟大的成果和欢乐。“爱与恨，感激与复仇，温良与愤怒……是不可分的。”但并不意味着它们必须同时表达出来，应该说，正面的事物可能是负面事物培植成功的结果。仇恨、妒忌、贪婪、权欲等情感都是生命的必要条件……是贯穿于整个人生的经营中基本要素。如果把所有的负面的根砍掉，也就等于扼杀了可能在枝头结出的正面的花果的元素。使我们感到窘迫的不应是困难本身，而是我们无能让困难结出美丽的果实。每一次痛苦都是一个本能的信号，说明有些事不对头，而其孕育的结果是好是坏全赖承受者的智慧和力量。焦虑可能导致惊惶失措，也可能导致对缺失的准确分析。不公平感可能引出谋杀，也可能引出开创性的经济理论。妒忌可能引起怨恨，也可能激发与对手竞争的决心，从而创作出杰作。给邪恶和可疑的事物以适当的发泄，而不是致力于彻底消灭之。希腊人不是砍掉其敌人，而是施以教化。一切情欲在某个时期都曾是纯粹的灾难，以它们的极端愚蠢扳倒其受害者。后来，在很久以后，情欲与精神相结合，实现了“精神化”。早先，由于情欲的愚蠢，人们向情欲本身开战：设法消灭它……消灭情欲和欲望只是为了避免受其愚蠢之害；而在今天看来，这种愚蠢造成的不愉快的后果只不过是愚蠢的一种急性发作。我们已经不再对牙医拔牙止痛感到惊奇。如果你拒绝苦难在你身上逗留哪怕是1小时，如果你总是早早地防范可能的痛苦于未然，如果你把苦难与不快当作应当消灭的邪恶与仇恨，当作生存的缺点，那么，很清楚，你心中怀有安逸的宗教，生活在安逸中的人啊，你们真不知道幸福为何物，因为幸福与不幸是两姊妹，甚至是孪生姊妹，要么一起长大，要么一起永远保持矮小。要我相信酒能使人高兴，我先得变成基督徒，也就是说，相信我认为特别荒唐之事。我向基督教会提出任何公诉人从未提出过的最严厉的控告。在我看来，基督教会是可以想见的最极端的腐蚀形式……一切事物都难逃它堕落之手……我称基督教为惟一的大诅咒，惟一的本质上的大堕落……读《新约》时戴上手套是对的。接近这么多的不洁迫使人不得不如此。那里面一切都是怯懦，一切都是自欺，故意闭眼不看自己……难道还要我说吗？整个《新约》中只有一位孤独的人物是值得尊敬的，那就是罗马总督彼拉多。干脆说：今天作为基督徒是不体面的。两种欧洲最大的毒品：酒精和基督教。只有散步时出现的思想才是有价值的。